E-WASTE
DISPOSAL: A COMPARITIVE STUDY
Suhaas Mohan
Campus Law Centre, University of Delhi
INTRODUCTION
"Electronic waste" may be defined as
discarded computers, office electronic equipment, entertainment device electronics, mobile phones, television sets and refrigerators. This definition
includes used electronics which are destined for reuse, resale, salvage,
recycling, or disposal. Others define the re-usables (working and repairable
electronics) and secondary scrap (copper, steel, plastic, etc.) to be
"commodities", and reserve the term "waste" for residue or
material which is dumped by the buyer rather than recycled, including residue
from reuse and recycling operations. Because loads of surplus electronics are
frequently commingled (good, recyclable, and non-recyclable), several public
policy advocates apply the term "e-waste" broadly to all surplus electronics. Cathode ray tubes (CRT) are considered one of the
hardest types to recycle. CRTs
have relatively high concentration of lead and phosphors (not to be confused with phosphorus),
both of which are necessary for the display. The United States Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) includes discarded
CRT monitors in its category of "hazardous household waste" but considers CRTs that have been set
aside for testing to be commodities if they are not discarded, speculatively
accumulated, or left unprotected from weather and other damage.
Debate continues over the distinction between
"commodity" and "waste" electronics definitions. Some
exporters are accused of deliberately leaving difficult-to-recycle, obsolete,
or non-repairable equipment mixed in loads of working equipment (though this
may also come through ignorance, or to avoid more costly treatment processes).
Protectionists may broaden the definition of "waste" electronics in
order to protect domestic markets from working secondary equipment. The high
value of the computer recycling subset of electronic waste (working
and reusable laptops, desktops, and components like RAM) can help pay the cost of
transportation for a larger number of worthless pieces than can be achieved
with display devices, which have less (or negative) scrap value.
Since the
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) entered the spotlight around 2000, as a
potential policy alternative for waste management, legislation on e-waste
management has been promoted at and international level.The EU’s Waste
Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive, which incorporated EPR as
a basic principle, was announced in 2003. EU member states are accordingly
required to ensure their own domestic regulations are compatible with it.
Similar
policy tendencies can be found in Asian countries. The countries leading the
change are Japan, South Korea and Taiwan. They have been tacking the problem of
e-waste since around 2000. Moreover, in recent years several developing Asian
countries including China have been readying themselves for implementing new
regulations on e-waste management.
E-WASTE MANAGEMENT SITUATIONS IN DEVELOPING ASIAN COUNTRIES
As a general proposition, it is reasonably
uncertain if regulations adopted by developing countries will bring about
similar outcomes in developing countries. This can be understood intuitively
considering different legislative backgrounds of different countries and is
also applicable to e-waste management. If so, what are the characteristic
common features of the current situations regarding e-waste management within
developing Asian countries? The first consideration is the low cost of labour.
This is one of the substantial reasons why e-waste is continuously being exported
to developing countries by developed countries pursuing low treatment costs.
Secondly, because the diffusion rate of home appliances is comparatively low
demand for second hand goods is fairly high. Lastly, commercial recycling
countries play a more significant role in e-waste recycling than in developed
countries. However in regards to e-waste treatment, environmental impacts
caused by improper practices are questionable.
Among
Asian developing countries, china and Thailand are ready to implement new
regulations that include EPR perspectives. In respect drafts of these two
countries e-waste management policies, two common characteristic aspect are
confirmed. One is that economic responsibility for e-waste management is
imposed on manufacturers, reflecting that manufacturers should bear the costs
of recycling e-waste. However, physical responsibility for e-waste recycling is
not clearly stipulated in either draft. The other is that manufacturers pay
third parties to undertake the e-waste recycling.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF E-WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS IN JAPAN
Backgound to the legislation
Japan deals with e-waste in two ways. One is the
Law for the Promotion of Effective Utilization of Resources (LPUR), which
focuses on enhancing measures for recycling goods and reducing waste
generation. The other is the Law for Recycling of Specific Kinds of Home
Appliances (LHRA), which imposes certain responsibilities related to the
recycling of used home appliances on manufacturers and consumers. LPUR covers
personal computers and small sized secondary batteries designated as recyclable
products, while LHRA deals with four classes of items: television sets,
refrigerators, washing machines and air conditioners. The common ground of
enactment of both laws in Japan was increasing scarcity of waste disposal sites
and increased costs for waste disposal. The significant difference between LPUR
and LRHA is that the former encourages manufacturers’ voluntary efforts while
the latter imposes compulsory obligations on manufacturers.
Municipalities have been demanding that used
home appliances should be designated as troublesome wastes by the Ministry of
Welfare since around the 1970s (AEHA, 1998). Treatment at municipal facilities
necessitated semi-skilled workers, which lead to an increase in treatment
costs. To reduce these labour costs, municipalities began to resort to landfill
sites as an alternative. However, this action only caused to worsen the
landfill situation.
Structure of collection and cost allocation
Used Computers
Recycling of used computers does not fall under
the LHRA and is therefore not regulated as a compulsory legal requirement under
the law. However, since April 2001, computers discarded by businesses must be
collected and recycled pursuant to the LPUR.
Regarding
household computers, manufacturers have been voluntarily taking part in
collection and recycling since October 2003. The allocation of these costs of
these activities depends on the time of the purchase. For used computers
purchased after October 2003 consumers need not pay an extra recycling cost
(visible cost) because the cost is already included in the purchase price
(internalization). For computers purchased before October 2003, consumers must
pay the recycling cost upon disposal, just as for used home appliances.
Consumers can dispose of computers either via the manufacturer or a post
office. From the efficient utilization of resources, the following recycling
rates per item are recommended: 50% for desktop computers, 20% for notebook
computers, 55% for CRT monitors and 55% for liquid crystal displays.
Moreover,
LPUR, unlike, LRHA, does not stipulate any compulsory responsibility for
retailers, who are regarded as one of the main actors in used computer
recycling under LRHA. The difference is a reflection of the difference in
purchasing patterns between computers and home appliances. Firstly, consumers
generally take the newly purchased computers home themselves so it is quite
rare for retailers to deliver computers to the purchasers’ home. Secondly,
there is time latency between purchasing a new computer and disposing the old
one due to the need of data migration and other factors. It is considered that
even though certain type of physical responsibility is imposed on
manufacturers, namely the obligation to accept the old computers from
consumers, consumers are not likely to present their used computers at the time
of purchasing a new one.
Used home appliances
LRHA adopts
the principle of EPR, which extends the manufacturers responsibility from the
production stage to the whole life cycle of the product, including the post use
and disposal stages. Specifically, LRHA clarifies the “take back” and “take
–in” flow of used home appliances originating from consumers and
responsibilities of the respective actors within that flow.
When
discarding used home appliances, consumers are responsible for the cost of
transportation as well as e-waste recycling. Recycling fees range from 2400 yen
(washing machines) to 4600 yen (refrigerators). Transportation costs are paid
separately to retailers who convey the used home appliances. Retailers must
then transport the used home appliances from the consumer to the collection
site.
Manufacturers are required to either establish
their own recycling facilities or commission commercial recycling companies to
fulfil their recycling obligations. They are additionally required to achieve
compulsory recycling rates to ensure effective utilization of resources. These
rates are: 55% for television sets, 50% for refrigerators, and washing machines
and 60% for air conditioners.
Regarding
the role of municipalities in collection, they are no longer obliged by the
LRHA to collect used home appliances. However, they still collect and treat
home appliances in their area of jurisdiction, which includes appliances that
have been illegally dumped. In this case, the municipalities, like retailers,
do receive fees for transportation and recycling from customers and deliver the
used appliances to designated collection sites.
From the
above, it is evident that the LRHA provides a legal framework for assigning
responsibilities to manufacturers, retailers and consumers, with manufacturers
having the responsibility of physically collecting and recycling used home
appliances disposed of by consumers. However, the LRHA does not regulate the
activities performed by second hand dealers and recycling plants.
Treatment and policy challenges
Under the LHRA, the manufacturers are required to construct a recycled
infrastructure for used home appliances. However, the specific method of doing
so is not regulated. How then, did the manufacturers address the new situation
created by legislation? Their responses can be divided into broadly two types:
Group A and Group B. It has been pointed out that the reason Japan came to have
two types of recycling techniques is because of the promotion of competition
between manufacturers and the need to avoid violating anti-trust legislation. Additionally,
Group A and Group B had dissimilar viewpoint on how to reduce general costs
including collection and recycling of used home appliances.
Group A and Group B
provide 190 collection sites. Group A attempted to keep the recycling costs
down through maximum utilization of existing waste management companies which
can be classified into three main types: industrial waste treatment companies,
existing local scrappers, and companies belonging to a marisoru network.
Facilities of existing recyclers are usually used as collection sites. Because
Group A fulfils its legal obligations by contracting with 32 existing recycling
plants, a flexible response to fluctuations in volume is possible, which is
important when collection of used home appliances fall short of expectations.
In contrast, Group B
built 16 recycling plants and attempted to reduce total costs by adopting an
efficient logistics system. Although the initial investments were higher, Group
B is able to make adjustments to match operating conditions at recycling plants.
Unlike Group A, Group B generally uses transport company warehouses as
collection sites.
Because Group A and
Group B’s collection sites are managed separately, retailers may not choose
their nearest collection site if the costs are lower elsewhere. This creates a
heavy financial burden on retailers as in reality they may not ask the
customers to pay transportation costs. Competition between retailers over sales
of new products forces them to lower prices as much as possible, which may
preclude the costs of transportation to collection sites.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF E-WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS IN BRAZIL
Introduction
Brazil is the fifth biggest electronics and IT market globally. Although computers and electronics can be a social and economic driver, they also create waste that can be harmful to the environment and human health. A recent United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) report highlighted Brazil, along with Mexico and Senegal, as “generating more e-waste per capita from personal computers than the other (11) countries surveyed”.
Brazil is the fifth biggest electronics and IT market globally. Although computers and electronics can be a social and economic driver, they also create waste that can be harmful to the environment and human health. A recent United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) report highlighted Brazil, along with Mexico and Senegal, as “generating more e-waste per capita from personal computers than the other (11) countries surveyed”.
E-waste is not just a problem. It is an economic opportunity for
Brazil to take a leadership role in recycling and re-using electronic items,
reclaiming valuable materials, and dealing effectively and safely with unrecyclable
substances and parts.
Updated data on the Brazilian information and communications technology
(ICT) market point to its strong growth: in 2010, the milestone of 180 million
mobile phones was reached, with the expectation of the number of phones exceeding
200 million in 2011, according to data from the Brazilian telecommunication
agency Anatel. The sale of PCs increased 23% in the first quarter of 2010
when compared to the first quarter of 2009. In absolute numbers, almost three
million PCs were sold in the last three months [as of August 2010], according
to data from the Brazilian Electrical and Electronics Industry Association
(ABINEE).
On one hand, Brazilian economic growth leads to strong sales, but on the
other, estimates on electronic waste (e‑waste) disposal point to a decrease in
the useful life of these products, due to fast technological evolution and
consumerism. Mobile phones are changed at an average of every two years or
less, and computers last an average of four years in companies and five in
homes.
This scenario in Brazil is confirmed by a recent United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) study on the management of e‑waste in emerging
countries. Brazil was presented as one of the countries with a high per capita
production of e‑waste. And the lack of data on production and recycling
resulted in the following criticism:
"E‑waste seems not to be a high priority for the federal industry
association representing the majority of the ICT producing and assembling
industries."
Policy and
legislative context
It seems that this criticism, among other factors, might have motivated the signing, in May 2010, of an agreement between the Brazilian Environmental Ministry and the NGO Brazilian Business Commitment for Recycling (Cempre) for the creation of the first inventory on production, collection and recycling of e‑waste in Brazil. According to Environment Minister IzabellaTeixeira the aim of the agreement is to measure the generation and destination of e‑waste in the country.
The ministry predicts that the inventory will be finished in four
months, and that all companies that are members of Cempre’s electrical and
electronics committee will take part in it, as well as other associations
representing the electrical and electronics sector in Brazil. Undoubtedly, the
great highlight of 2010 in relation to Brazilian environmental legislation was
the approval in July of a bill to establish a National Policy on Solid Waste in
the Brazilian Senate, after taking 21 years to get through the Chamber of
Deputies, and its subsequent approval by President LuizInácio Lula da
Silva in August, with regulations expected to follow.
The delay of more than two decades can be explained by the pressure of several sectors in society on a subject with numerous implications. More specifically, in relation to e‑waste, the industry lobby managed to withdraw the reference to e‑waste from the part of the legislation that regulates the mandatory recycling of special products. However, pressure from civil society was able to reinstate the reference, and the legislation now obliges manufacturers, importers, distributors and vendors to collect both used products and packaging. This system also includes batteries, tires and oils.
Moreover, the concept of shared responsibility is introduced in the legislation, involving society, companies, municipalities, and both state and federal governments in the management of solid waste. The legislation establishes that people must adequately pack their waste for collection, and are also responsible for separation in areas where selective collection is made.
The legislation establishes that the national and state governments can grant incentives to the recycling industry. Cities will only receive money from the federal government for projects in public cleaning and handling of solid waste after they approve their management plans. Cooperatives dealing with recycled material were included in the shared responsibility, and will also be eligible for government incentives.
It is expected that the new legislation will finally enforce social responsibility from electrical and electronics manufacturers, and ensure that society understands the economic potential of e‑waste, but also its environmental impact. It is very important to highlight that the stage following the presidential approval of the legislation, the regulation of the law, is a crucial phase in finalising outstanding issues, and creating the kind of framework that was intended by the law.
At the state government level, data from 2009 show that eight of Brazil’s 26 states have a policy on solid waste. However, e‑waste is only mentioned in the policy developed by the State of Pernambuco, while the State of São Paulo has enforced specific legislation dealing with e‑waste since 2008. It is expected that from now on, discussions dealing with e‑waste will become more and more evident in assemblies, chambers and councils at all legislative levels.
Recovery of e-waste
Isolated initiatives seek to minimise the problem of e‑waste. One of the solutions has emerged from the Electronic Computing Center at the University of São Paulo (CCE-USP). In December 2009, an e‑waste recovery and processing centre (CEDIR) was opened at the university, following the adaptation of a 400-square-metre warehouse with areas for loading and unloading and a depot for categorising, screening and dismantling.
The delay of more than two decades can be explained by the pressure of several sectors in society on a subject with numerous implications. More specifically, in relation to e‑waste, the industry lobby managed to withdraw the reference to e‑waste from the part of the legislation that regulates the mandatory recycling of special products. However, pressure from civil society was able to reinstate the reference, and the legislation now obliges manufacturers, importers, distributors and vendors to collect both used products and packaging. This system also includes batteries, tires and oils.
Moreover, the concept of shared responsibility is introduced in the legislation, involving society, companies, municipalities, and both state and federal governments in the management of solid waste. The legislation establishes that people must adequately pack their waste for collection, and are also responsible for separation in areas where selective collection is made.
The legislation establishes that the national and state governments can grant incentives to the recycling industry. Cities will only receive money from the federal government for projects in public cleaning and handling of solid waste after they approve their management plans. Cooperatives dealing with recycled material were included in the shared responsibility, and will also be eligible for government incentives.
It is expected that the new legislation will finally enforce social responsibility from electrical and electronics manufacturers, and ensure that society understands the economic potential of e‑waste, but also its environmental impact. It is very important to highlight that the stage following the presidential approval of the legislation, the regulation of the law, is a crucial phase in finalising outstanding issues, and creating the kind of framework that was intended by the law.
At the state government level, data from 2009 show that eight of Brazil’s 26 states have a policy on solid waste. However, e‑waste is only mentioned in the policy developed by the State of Pernambuco, while the State of São Paulo has enforced specific legislation dealing with e‑waste since 2008. It is expected that from now on, discussions dealing with e‑waste will become more and more evident in assemblies, chambers and councils at all legislative levels.
Recovery of e-waste
Isolated initiatives seek to minimise the problem of e‑waste. One of the solutions has emerged from the Electronic Computing Center at the University of São Paulo (CCE-USP). In December 2009, an e‑waste recovery and processing centre (CEDIR) was opened at the university, following the adaptation of a 400-square-metre warehouse with areas for loading and unloading and a depot for categorising, screening and dismantling.
The Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT) Sustainability Lab is one of USP’s partners in this project.
Besides collecting e‑waste, the initiative has resulted in the acquisition of
eco-friendly computers manufactured without lead or other heavy metals, and the
creation of a green seal of approval, with its own certification, identifying
equipment using eco-friendly materials and manufactured in environmentally safe
conditions.
Recycling and social inclusion
The federal government has been running another initiative for recycling e‑waste since 2004. The Computers for Inclusion Project (Projeto CI) consists of a national network for recycling IT equipment, training and digital inclusion. Equipment discarded by government institutions, companies and households is recovered in collection centres, refurbished, and later donated to telecentres, schools and libraries throughout the country.
Recycling and social inclusion
The federal government has been running another initiative for recycling e‑waste since 2004. The Computers for Inclusion Project (Projeto CI) consists of a national network for recycling IT equipment, training and digital inclusion. Equipment discarded by government institutions, companies and households is recovered in collection centres, refurbished, and later donated to telecentres, schools and libraries throughout the country.
The project is
coordinated by the Logistics and Information Technology Secretariat of the
Ministry of Planning, which establishes local partnerships for the maintenance
and recovery of the equipment. Centres have already been set up in the cities
of Porto Alegre, Guarulhos, Belo Horizonte, Gama and Recife.
The Science and Technology for Social Inclusion Secretariat has invested in a project that involves the training of approximately 400 people, including students and unemployed people, in the city of Planaltina, located 38 kilometres from Brasília. The group took part in a computer maintenance and assembly course and went on to recover equipment donated by public institutions and universities.
Environmental project for the electrical and electronics sector
The Renato Archer Information Technology Centre, which is connected to the Science and Technology Ministry, is now working on a new environmental project for the electrical and electronics sector.
The project, called Ambientronic, is expected to work on four fronts: supporting manufacturers in adapting products, promoting ecodesign, analysing the life cycle of technology, and stimulating the recycling industry’s ability to adapt to international practices.
The Science and Technology for Social Inclusion Secretariat has invested in a project that involves the training of approximately 400 people, including students and unemployed people, in the city of Planaltina, located 38 kilometres from Brasília. The group took part in a computer maintenance and assembly course and went on to recover equipment donated by public institutions and universities.
Environmental project for the electrical and electronics sector
The Renato Archer Information Technology Centre, which is connected to the Science and Technology Ministry, is now working on a new environmental project for the electrical and electronics sector.
The project, called Ambientronic, is expected to work on four fronts: supporting manufacturers in adapting products, promoting ecodesign, analysing the life cycle of technology, and stimulating the recycling industry’s ability to adapt to international practices.
The development of the project proposal
started two years ago with the collection of information and workshops with
several sectors related to electrical and electronic equipment. One of the
practical results was an agreement signed with the Association of Medical and
Dental Equipment Manufacturers (Abimo). The pilot project will help companies
from this sector secure the appropriate environmental certifications. The
intention is to extend this process to the entire electrical and electronics
sector.
Action steps
It is the responsibility of society as a whole to deal with e‑waste. It may be important to mobilise public opinion in order to ensure that the new legislation on solid waste is regulated, and that proper inspection of e‑waste recycling plants is conducted.
Some points that are fundamental to promoting the good management of solid waste in Brazil still need to be discussed:
It is the responsibility of society as a whole to deal with e‑waste. It may be important to mobilise public opinion in order to ensure that the new legislation on solid waste is regulated, and that proper inspection of e‑waste recycling plants is conducted.
Some points that are fundamental to promoting the good management of solid waste in Brazil still need to be discussed:
·
The
definition of government responsibilities and the responsibilities of
consumers.
·
The
management of orphan equipment acquired on the black market or from
manufacturers that are no longer operating.
·
Gradual
targets: the amount (percentage) over time of e‑waste that must be collected
and recycled is not defined in the legislation.
·
Periodic
studies on progress in the management of e‑waste and periodic analysis of the
efficiency of the law.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF E-WASTE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEMS IN CHINA
Serious adverse impacts on the environment and
humanhealth from e-waste recycling have occurred in the past andcontinue to
occur in China today, due to a lack of nationalmanagement strategies. China has
made great efforts to facethe challenges of the approaching peak increase in thedomestic
generation of e-waste and the illegal shipment ofe-waste from other countries.
This study examined recentprogress and analysed the main problems associated
with thisissue in China. It was found that the material and the financial flows
of e-waste in China had their own specific characteristics. Nearly 60% of the
generated e-wastes were sold toprivate individual collectors and passed into
informal recycling processes. More than 90% of Chinese citizens are reluctant
to pay for the recycling of their e-waste. This is due totheir traditional
understanding that there remained value inthese end-of-life products.
Regulations concerning e-wastein China have been drafted but their deficiencies
are obvious. The extended producer responsibilities (EPR) havebeen introduced
but are not well defined. Eight formal facilities have been planned and are
under construction or are inoperation along the eastern coast of China but it
will be difficult for them to compete with the informal processes due to the
reasons mentioned below.
INTRODUCTION
As China is a large manufacturer and consumer of
electronicappliances, the Chinese government has made efforts totackle the
problem caused by the recycling and disposal ofwaste electrical and electronic
equipment (hereinafterreferred as e-waste) since 2001. The driving forces come
fromboth outside and inside the country. The regulations on electronic products
and e-waste recycling management in othercountries/regions (especially in EU
and its member countries) put great pressure on exports of Chinese electronicproducts
and suitable responses need to be found. Meanwhile, Chinese domestic e-waste
stockpiles are approaching apeak. The development of small-scale and informal
recyclingprocesses has had serious adverse impacts on the environment and human
health in some regions. These informalprocesses attract material from most of
the e-waste generatedand thereby become a barrier to the formal recycling
businesses. The importance of establishing a regulated e-wastemanagement
framework has been widely recognized butprogress with regard to legislation,
the collecting system andthe construction of formal recycling facilities is
slow.The purpose of this study was to investigate the progressof e-waste
management in China. The material and financialflows of e-waste were reviewed
on the basis of a rough estimate of the amounts generated. The main barriers to
beovercome were also analysed in terms of the public responseand regulations
drafted by the government. The insufficiencies of the draft regulations are
explained by consideringthe effectiveness of the legislation, system coverage,
systemfinancing, the producer’s responsibilities and ensuring compliance.
DEFINITION AND GENERATION OF E-WASTE IN
CHINA
E-waste definition in China
There is no standard or generally accepted
definition of ewaste in the world (Widmer et al. 2005). In most cases,
e-wastecomprises the relatively expensive and essentially durable products used
for data processing, telecommunications or entertainment in private households
and businesses. According tothe definition given in Directive 2002/96/EC of the
EuropeanParliament (EU 2002), ‘waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE)
consists of the 9 categories that are as follows:
a) Large household appliances
b) Small household appliances
c) IT and telecommunications equipment
d) Consumer equipment
e) Lighting equipment
f)
Electrical
and electronic tools (with the exception of large scale stationary industrial
tools)
g) Toys, leisure and sports equipment
h) Medical devices (with the exception of all
implanted and infected products)
i)
Monitoring
and control equipment
China uses
the same definition of e-waste as that in theEU directive. The ‘Notice on
Strengthening the Environmental Management of WEEE’ issued by the China State
Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA 2003) included all categories
listed above as the management targets.This indicated the overall ambition of
the Chinese environmental protection authority to control all possible
pollutioncaused by e-waste. It should only be thought of as the initialresponse
to the growing concern about the e-waste issue inChina and has already proved
to be insufficient, even beforea practical management system could be
established.In the final draft of ‘Ordinance on the Management of
WasteHousehold Electrical and Electronic Products Recycling andDisposal’
prepared by the China National Development andReform Commission (NDRC 2004),
the regulated items includeTV sets, refrigerators, washing machines, air
conditioners andpersonal computers as the first stage. The types of items to beregulated
will be increased by amending the list after theenactment of the legislation.
E-waste generation in China
In China e-waste is becoming an important waste
stream interms of both quantity and toxicity. The sources can be categorized
into domestically generated waste and that importedfrom other countries.
Although the actual quality of e-wasteimports is unavailable, China is the
destination for a largeproportion of e-waste shipments from developed
countries.The United States e-waste recycling industry once declaredthat around
80% of the e-waste they received was exportedinto Asia, and around 90% of it
went to China (BAN 2002).In response to the inflow of e-waste, the Chinese
government announced a ban on the importation of e-waste, whichcame into force
on 15 August 2002 (MOFTEC, CGA &SEPA 2002). However, some newspapers have
claimed thate-waste imports are still an increasing problem and are spreading
from the primary Guangdong Province to other regionssuch as Zhejiang, Shanghai,
Tianjin, Hunan, Fujian and Shandong. At least 14 cases of illegal shipment of
e-waste werecaught by the Chinese government during 1994–2004 (China Environmental
News 1994–2004). The exporters/importersdeclared that this e-waste was
secondhand goods or mixedmetals, which are not regulated under the Basel
Convention. However, these imports were illegal according to
Chineseregulations.With the rapid industrialization and economic
developmentthat has occurred in China since the 1980s, an approachingpeak of
both the possession and obsolescence of electronicappliances is predicted.
The growth of product possession can normally be
dividedinto four phases: the primary introduction phase; the rapidlygrowing
phase; the saturation phase; and the declining phase. However, there is a large
difference in possession levels ofelectronic appliances between urban and rural
areas becauseof the income gap in China. In urban areas, refrigerator
andwashing machine possession has nearly reached the saturation phase and the
possession of a colour TV is also increasing gradually, whereas possession of
air conditioners and personal computers is increasing rapidly. In rural areas,
black/white TV is rapidly being replaced by a colour set. The possession of a
refrigerator and washing machine is beginning toshow rapid growth, whereas
possession of an air conditioneris still at the introductory stage.Statistical
data concerning the amount of sales and possession of the main electronic
appliances in China are available but it is still difficult to precisely
estimate and predict the annual amount of obsolete e-waste because of the lack
of statistic data on their consumption patterns (life span and the accumulated
obsolescence ratio over a period of time). The practical way is to roughly
estimate the waste amount based on the sales amount and the assumed average
period of use.The estimated numbers of the main electronic appliances,obtained
by using this method, are listed in Figure 3. In 2003,the total for the five
categories was about 55.96 million units.The weight was around 1.76 million
tons. TV sets were the largest contributor and accounted for nearly half of the
total.
E-waste recycling and disposal processes
E-waste recycling material and
financial flows
The e-waste recycling and disposal in China is
typically disorganized at present and the legislation to regulate
e-waste recycling has not yet been finalized. Private individual collectors
formed the main channel for e-waste collection. However, it must be noted that
there are also semi-organized collection networks which exist even though they do
not exclusively collect e-waste. There are some secondhand appliance markets as
well. For example, in Beijing,the capital of China, a survey suggests that
there are approximately 5000 individual collectors and 17 secondhand markets.
These individual collectors do not have business licences and fixed workshops
and they collected all kinds of e-waste.
About 60% of the total discarded e-waste is
collected by individual peddlers (Beijing Morning News 2005). In contrast
to industrialized economies, the consumers are paid by collectors for old, used
and non-working appliances in China.
Informal e-waste recycling
processes
Currently the majority of e-waste in China is
processed inbackyards or small workshops using primary methods such asmanual
disassembly and open burning. The
appliances arestripped of their most valuable and easily extracted
components/materials such as printed wiring boards (PWB), cathode ray tubes
(CRTs), cables, plastics, metals, condensers andthe worthless materials such as
batteries, liquid crystal displays (LCDs) or wood. These fractions are
processed to directlyreusable components and secondary raw materials in a
varietyof refining and conditioning processes. The remaining partsare dumped or
stockpiled directly. The most prominent regionswith small-scale,
unlicencedprocesses are located in thesouthern Guangdong province and in
Zhejiang province ineastern China. They attracted international attention after
areport on e-waste trading and processing in Asia from nongovernmental
organizations such as the Basel Action Network(BAN) and Greenpeace of China.
Adverse impacts from the informal
recycling processes
The existing informal recycling and disposal of
e-waste inChina has caused serious consequences to the surrounding environment
and human health. An on-site survey and pollutant monitoring was carried out by
researchers from Hong Kong Baptist University at Guiyu town during
2003–2004(Leung et al. 2004). They collected sediment and soil samples from the
Liangjiang River, from a residential area that is adjacent to the recycling
sites, and from the dumping sites of burnt plastic and waste printer rollers,
and the samples were analysed in the laboratory. The results indicated that the
concentration of total polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)was fairly high
with the highest being 593 µg kg–1 in thesample sediment from the waste printer
rollers dump site. Sediment from the Lianjiang River was found to be the most contaminated
by polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs, 743 µg kg–1). Its concentration exceeded
the Canadian EnvironmentalQuality Guidelines Probable Effect Level of 277 µg
kg–1by2.7-fold. Polybrominateddiphenyl ethers (PBDEs, 1140–2196 ng g–1) in
soils near direct dumping sites were between 10and 60 times higher than those
reported in other contaminated locations in the world. The highest
concentrations oftotalheavy metals appeared in the river sediments and thesoils
collected from the burnt plastic dump sites. Cu, Pb andZn were the most
abundant metals. It was foundthat the long-term informal recycling of e-wastes
in Guiyuappeared to have adverse impacts on the environment and thehealth of
the people working/living there. This type of primary and informal recycling
must be prohibited and replacedby environmentally sound manners.
Legislative responses to e-waste
management
Various ministries of the Chinese central
government haveissued a few transitional legislation documents in response
tothe growing concern about the increasing piles of e-waste.This transitional
legislation is all based on earlier regulationsconcerning pollution control and
prevention of recyclingand the disposal of solid waste and has proved to be
insufficient. For instance, ‘Notice on Strengthening the Environmental
Management of e-waste’ (SEPA 2003) prohibits theenvironmentally adverse
processing of e-waste. However, themanagement system for e-waste recycling has
not yet beenset up and as a result, the informal recycling processes cannot be
shut down.Several government agencies have been involved in draftingthree other
new pieces of legislation. ‘The Management Measures for the Prevention of
Pollution from Electronic Products’prepared by the Ministry of Information
Industry (MII), isaimed at reducing the utilization of hazardous and toxic
substances in electronic appliances and the possible pollutiongenerated in the
manufacture of these products. This draftlegislation is the counterpart of the
EU RoHS directive. Thesecond draft, prepared by SEPA, is a technical policy
document to provide guidance for the pollution control of e-wasterecycling. The
third one, prepared by NDRC from 2001, is the‘Ordinance on the Management of
Waste Household Electrical and Electronic Products Recycling and Disposal’. It
is thecounterpart of the EU WEEE Directive and is very importantfor the
establishment of an entire management framework fore-waste recycling in China.
The final draft of the ordinancewas submitted to the State Council in early
2005 and currently an approval is awaited.The introduction of extended producer
responsibility (EPR)with well-defined roles for all participants – producers,
users,authorities and waste managers is essential for designing aneffective
e-waste management system (Lindqvist 2000). Fiveparameters, namely the
elaboration of the legal regulation,system coverage, system financing,
producer’s responsibilityand compliance ensuring, have been identified to
characterizean e-waste management system. In the final draft of China NDRC
regulation, it was statedthat the country will set up a specific fund in order
to financethe recycling and disposal of e-waste. The questions such aswho will
pay, how much they should pay and how to collectand use the fund, etc., are not
clear. The unclear financingsystem will be a bottleneck in the procedure for
the smoothimplementation of the draft regulation after its enactment.
Facilities with
large-scale and advanced technical processes
As the business prospects for e-waste recycling
in China aregood, several large-scale facilities with formal and
advancedtechnical processes have been built or are being planned andconstructed.
All these facilitiesare spread along the eastern coast of China where there isa
relatively developed economy. Two of the facilities havestarted operating but
at present the raw materials for recycling are mainly by-products from the
manufacture of electronic products as very few end-of-life electronic
appliancesare collected and transported to them. Their profits are poorbecause
of an insufficient supply of materials for processing.A manager from Nanjing
Jinze Corporation explained that itwas very difficult for them to compete with
the informal workshops because of the high cost of pollution control
(Environmental Times 2004).
Conclusions
The informal e-waste recycling processes must be
prohibitedby legislation and replaced by large-scale facilities as soon
aspossible in China. It will be difficult to establish an e-wastemanagement
system based on the EPR principle due to difficulties in drafting the
regulations. Some research must be donein order to estimate and more precisely
predict the amount ofe-waste that is likely to be generated and then to
quantify thecost and environmental impacts of the whole recycling system. It is
essential that the EPR is defined well enough toestablish an effective
management framework in China.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF E-WASTE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEMS IN INDIA
Electronic waste (e-waste) is one of the fastest
growing waste streams in thecountry. Growth of Information and Communication Technology
sector has enhanced the usage of the electronicequipment exponentially. Faster
obsolescence and subsequent up-gradation of electronics product, are forcing
consumers to discard old products, which in turn accumulate huge e-waste to the
solid waste stream. E-waste is growing in India at the rate of 10%. Major
recycling of e-waste is carried out in the non-formal sector using primitive
and hazardousmethods. Adequate legislative measures and cost-effective,
environmental friendly,technological solution would be needed to address the issue.
INTRODUCTION
The discarded and end-of-life electronics
products ranging from computers, equipment used in Information and
Communication Technology (ICT), home appliances, audio and video products and
all of their peripherals are popularly known as Electronic waste (E-waste).
There is, however, no standard or generally accepted definition of e-waste in
the world. In most cases, e-waste comprises of the relatively expensive and
essentially durable products used for data processing, telecommunications or
entertainment in private households and businesses.
E-waste is not hazardous if it is stocked in
safe storage or recycled by scientific methods or transported from one place to
the other in parts or in totality in the formal sector. The e-waste can,
however, be considered hazardous if recycled by primitive methods. E-waste
contains several substances such as heavy metals, plastics, glass etc., which
can be potentially toxic and hazardous to the environment and human health, if
not handled in an environmentally sound manner. E-waste recycling in the non-formal
sector by primitive methods can damage the environment. The ill effects of
e-waste could be on soil through leaching of hazardous contents from landfills;
in water due to contamination of rivers, wells and other water sources; in air
due to emission of gases and burning of e-waste. The recycling process, if not
carried out properly, can cause damage to human being through inhalation of
gases during recycling, contact of the skin of the workers with hazardous
substances and contact during acid treatment used in recovery process.
The hazardous and toxic substances found in
e-waste include lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) in printed circuit boards (PCBs).
Lead is primarily found in
all electronic products/ assembly, cathode ray tubes (CRT)
etc. Cadmium is found in monitor/ CRTs while there may be mercury in switches
and flat screen monitors. Mercury is also found in CFL, relays and some other
specific products.
Besides the cadmium in computer batteries,
cadmium is also used for plating metal enclosures/ metal parts in
sub-assemblies. Polychlorinated biphenyls are found in capacitors and
transformers and as brominated flame retardant on printed circuit boards,
plastic casings, cable and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) cable sheathing for
insulation and PBD/PBDE in plastic parts of electronics.
No exclusive study has so far been made to know
the effect of the e-waste in the environment. Few NGOs have, however, found
that the recycling of e-waste in non-formal sector is hazardous. These units
use primitive, non-scientific, and non-environment-friendly methods. As these
units are working in unorganized sector, no data is available to substantiate
the fact that they are violating the prevailing laws for labour, environmental
protection and industry.
Greenpeace had undertaken a survey of the
environmental pollution during manufacturing of electronic products in China,
Thailand, Philippines and Mexico (source: www.greenpeace.org). The study is an assessment on pollution due
to the use of some of the hazardous chemicals in the manufacture of electronic
products in these countries. The industries included the printed circuit board
and semiconductor chip manufacturing units and various assembly units of
television, computers, monitors etc. No such study has been carried out in
India.
Inventory of Electronics Waste
Actual data on generation or import of e-waste
is not currently available in India. Several studies have been conducted by
various agencies to find out the inventory of e-waste in the country. Most of
these studies are based on the model of obsolescence of electronic products,
which needs to be validated with the field data. A survey was carried out by
the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) during 2005. It was estimated that
1.347 lakh MT of e-waste was generated in the country in the year 2005, which
is expected to increase to about 8.0 lakh MT by 2012. During 2007,
Manufacturers’ association for Information Technology (MAIT), India and GTZ,
India had, however, carried out an inventory on e-waste, arising out of three
products: computers, mobile phones, and televisions. The total quantities of
generated e-waste in India, during 2007, were 3, 32, 979 Metric Tonnes (MT)
(Computer: 6324MT, Mobile Phones: 1655MT, and Televisions: 275000MT) (Sources:
Report on “E-Waste Inventorisation in India”, MAIT-GTZ Study, 2007).Considering
the growth rate found by the said study, the volume of e-waste will reach
nearly 0.7 million MT by 2015 and 2 million MT by 2025.
State and City wise Electronics Waste
generation in India
In India, among top ten cities, Mumbai ranks
first in generating e-waste followed by Delhi, Bangalore, Chennai, Kolkata,
Ahmadabad, Hyderabad, Pune, Surat and Nagpur. The 65 cities generate more than
60% of the total generated e-waste, whereas, 10 states generate 70% of the
total e-waste.
Legislative Measures
Ministry of Environment andForests (MoEF),
Government of India is the nodal agency for policy, planning, promoting and
coordinating the environmental programme including electronics waste. The
management of e-waste was covered under the Environment and Forests Hazardous
Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules 2008. An exclusive notification on
E-waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2010 under the Environment (Protection)
Act, 1986 has been notified (S.O. 1035) on 12thMay 2011 to address the safe and
environment friendly handing, transporting, storing, recycling of e-waste and
also to reduce the use of hazardous substances during manufacturing of electrical
and electronic equipment. These rules will come into effect on 1st May 2012.
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) India had released guidelines during
2008 for environmentally sound management of e-waste, which should apply to all
those who handle the e-waste. The salient features of the Rules are discussed
as below.
Chapters and schedules
|
Titles
|
Issues addressed
|
CHAPTER I:
Preliminary
|
1. Short title and commencement
2. Application
3. Definitions
|
Chapter
discusses the title and commencement of the laws, applicable stakeholders and
related definitions ofthe terminology
|
CHAPTER
II:Responsibilities
|
4. Responsibilities of the producer
5. Responsibilities of collection centers
6. Responsibilities of consumer or bulk consumer
7.
Responsibilities of dismantler
8.
Responsibilities of recycler
|
Responsibilities and
the dos and don’ts of the stakeholders are discussed in this chapter
|
CHAPTER
III: Procedure forseeking authorization for handling e-wastes
|
9.
Procedure for grant of authorization
10.Power
to suspend or cancel an authorization
11.
Procedure for grant of registration
|
Chapter
discusses the procedure and formalities for
potential e-wasteshandlers to
obtain authorization.
Procedure
for grant of registration at State Pollution Control Board (SPCB)is also
discussed.
|
CHAPTER
IV: Procedure for storage of e-waste
|
12.Procedure
for storage of e-waste
|
Maximum
permissible storage period of e-waste with any consumer is 180
days. SPCB
may extend the period, if no authorised recyclers are found inthat state.
|
CHAPTER V:
Reduction in the use of hazardous substances in the manufacture of electrical
and electronic equipment.
|
13.
Reduction in the use ofhazardous materials (HS) in the manufacture of
electrical and electronic equipment.
|
Chapter
advises the manufactures to reduce the HS in the electrical & electronic
products. Maximum permissible limit of lead, mercury, cadmium, and hexavalent
chromium and polybrominated biphenyls andpolybrominateddiphenyl ethers is
discussed.
|
CHAPTER
VI: Miscellaneous
|
14.Duties
of Authorities
15.Annual
Report
16.Transportation
of e-waste
17.Accident
reporting and follow-up
18.
Collection, storage,transportation, segregation, refurbishment, dismantling
recycling and disposal of e-waste shall be in accordance with theprocedures.
|
Miscellaneous
chapter discusses the duties of the authority, & norms of collection,
storage, transportation, refurbishment, dismantling recycling and disposal of
e-waste, duties of the authorities, etc. and reporting of e-waste
|
SCHEDULE-I:
Categories of e-waste covered underthe rules
|
Electrical
and electronic equipment is categorised as:
Consumer
electrical and electronics products are categorised as:
|
Centralized
Data Processing, Mainframes, Minicomputers, Personal Computers, Laptop,
Notebook, Notepad, Printers Including Cartridges, Copying Equipment,
Electrical And Electronic Typewriters, User Terminals And Systems, Facsimile,
Telex, Telephones, Pay Telephones, Cordless-Phones, Cellphones, &
Answering Systems.
Television
sets, Liquid Crystal display, Light emitting diode display, Refrigerator,
Washing machine, and Air-conditioners.
|
SCHEDULE-II:
Application which are excepted from the requirement of Sub-rule(1) of Rule 13
|
Applicable
to categories of electrical and electronic equipment as listed at Schedule-I
|
List of
exempted applications of lead,
mercury, cadmium invarious processes with their admissible limit.
|
Global Scenario
The EU legislations restricting the use of hazardous
substances in electrical and electronic equipment (Directive 2002/95/EC) and
promoting the collection and recycling of such equipment(Directive 2002/96/EC)
were enforced in February 2003. The legislation provide for the creation of
collection schemes where consumers return their used e-waste free of charge.
The objective of these schemes is to increase the recycling and/or re-use of
such products. They also requires heavy metals such as lead, mercury, cadmium,
and hexavalent chromium and flame retardants such as polybrominated biphenyls
(PBB) or polybrominateddiphenyl ethers (PBDE) to be substituted by safer
alternatives. The European Commission proposed to revise the directives on
electrical and electronic equipment in December 2008 to tackle the increasing
volume of waste stream as it was felt that inadequately treated e-waste poses environmental
and health risks. The EU had triggered several similar initiatives around the
world. Major initiatives on RoHS were taken in California, Norway, China, South
Korea and Japan. Many countries including Australia, New Zealand, Thailand,
Malaysia, Taiwan, Canada and Brazil are also seriously considering the matter.
Enforcement Agencies in India
Indian Enforcement Agencies involved in E-waste
i. Ministry of
Environment and Forests, Government of India is responsible in
identification of hazardous wastes and provides permission to exporters and
importers under the Environment (protection) Act, 1986.
ii. Central
Pollution Control Board (CPCB) was constituted under the Water (Prevention
and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974. CPCB coordinates activities with the State
Pollution Control Boards and ensures implementations of the conditions of
imports. It also monitors the compliance of the conditions of authorization,
import and export and conduct training courses for authorities dealing
withmanagement of hazardous wastes and to recommend standards for treatment,
disposal of waste, leachate and specifications of materials and recommend
procedures for characterization of hazardous wastes.
iii. State Pollution
Control Boards (SPCB) constituted under the Water (Prevention and Control
of Pollution) Act, 1974 to grant and renew authorization, to monitor the
compliance of the various provisions and conditions of authorization, to
forward the application for imports by importers and to review matters
pertaining to identification and notification of disposal sites.
iv. Directorate
General of Foreign Trade constituted under the Foreign Trade (Development
& regulation) Act 1992 to grant/ refuse licence for hazardous wastes
prohibited for imports under the Environment (protection) Act, 1986.
v. Port Authorities
and Customs Authorities under the customs Act, 1962 verify the documents
and inform the Ministry of Environment and Forests of any illegal traffic and
analyze wastes permitted for imports and exports and also train officials on
the provisions of the Hazardous Wastes Rules and in analysis of hazardous
wastes.
vi. The Directorate
General of Foreign Trade (DGFT) is the certifying authority for permitting
imports of second-hand goods.
E-waste Recycling Practices in India
Non-formal Sector
Ninety-five percentage of the e-waste in India is being
recycled in non-formal sector and five percentage of the e-waste volume are
handled in formal unit. In and around of metropolitan cities in India, there
are over 3000 units engaged in non-formal sector for e-waste recycling.
Non-formal units of e-waste recyclers are distributed all over India. A large cluster of industries are in Delhi,
Tamil Nadu, U.P., Karnataka, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, West
Bengal, Rajasthan, etc. Non-formal units generally follow the steps such as
collection of the e-waste from the rag pickers, disassembly of the products for
their useable parts, components, modules, which are having resell value. The
rest of the material is chemically treated to recover precious metals. Due to
inadequate means, it may cause leaching of hazardous substances to the air,
soil, and water. This recycling method
has low efficiency and recovery is carried out only for valuable metals like
gold, silver, aluminium, copper, etc. Other materials such as tantalum,
cadmium, zinc, palladium etc. could not be recovered.
Formal Sector
Few formal recyclers are operating in India. The processes
followed in formal sector are mainly limited to the segregation, dismantling of
e-waste till the size reduction stage of printed circuit boards (PCBs). A
shredder is employed for PCBs size reduction. The pre-processed PCB is exported
to smelting refineries in developed countries for further recovery of precious
metals like copper, silver, gold, aluminium, palladium, tantalum, ruthenium,
platinum etc. and also treating the slag by-product in an eco-friendly
manner. The end-to-end solution of e-waste
recycling is still not available in India The recycling/ recovery of valuables
substances by units in formal sector is carried out in protected environment
and with due care to minimize any damage to the environment or society. The use
of advanced processes and technologies leads to efficient recovery of metals.
Recovery technology by units in formal sector will be economically viable as
the high cost of capital equipments and needed techniques could be shared by
the volume of products. Efficiency of recovery in the formal recycling is high
and metals at the trace level can also be recovered. Some technology works with
zero-landfill approach.
Most of the e-waste in India is channelized to
non-formal sector, whereas, the formal sector is facing problem of not having
sufficient input materials. In order to address the issue, MoEF had introduced
adequate clauses in the Hazardous Wastes (Management, Handling
&Transboundary) Rules, 2008. The MoEF had advised all the Government Departments/
Offices that e-waste generated in various offices is essentially to dispose of
in an environmentally sound manner in accordance with these Rules.The occupier
has now responsible for safe and environmentally sound handling of such wastes
generated in their establishments. It was further advised that the units
handling and engaged in activity like collection, segregation, dismantling and
recycling of e-wastes are required to register with Central Pollution Control
Board (CPCB). Following is the list of authorized dismantlers/
recyclers,registered with CPCB.
1. Ramky
E-waste Recycling Facility, Maheswaram Andhra Pradesh
2. Earth Sense Recycle
Pvt.Ltd.,MaheshwaramMandal, Andhra Pradesh
3. Ash Recyclers, Hoskote, Bangalore
4.
New Port Computer Services
(India)Private Limited, Bommasandra, Bangalore
5. EWaRDD& Co., Bommanahalli, Bangalore
6. E-R3 Solutions Pvt. Ltd., Peenya,
Bangalore (Only Printer Cartridge)
7. Ash Recyclers, Thimmiah Road, Bangalore
8. E-ParisaraPvt. Ltd., Nelamangala,
Bangalore
9. Surface Chem Finishers, Bangalore
10. Jhagadia Copper Ltd., Jhagadia, Gujarat
(Shredded PCBs/Mother Board only)
11. ECO Recycling Limited, Thane,
Maharashtra
12. Earth Sense Recycle Pvt. Ltd., Thane, Maharashtra
13. Hi-Tech Recycling India (P)Ltd.,Mulshi,
Pune, Maharashtra
14. Earth Sense Recycle Pvt. Ltd., Manesar,
Gurgaon, Haryana
15. Greenscape eco management Pvt. Ltd., Alwar,
Rajhasthan
16. Trishyiraya Recycling India Pvt. Ltd.,
Tambaram, Chennai
17. TES AMM Private Limited, Sriperumpudur,
Tamil Nadu
18. Global
E-waste Management and Services (GEMS), Kancheepuram, Tamil Nadu
19. Victory
Recovery & Recycle Technologies India Pvt.Ltd., Thiruvallur, Tamil Nadu
(ICs, PCBs, Solder Dross (Pb bearing 6000
Waste) and PCBs assemblies)
20. Ultrust Solutions (India)Pvt.Ltd.,Thiruvallur,
Tamil Nadu
21. INAA Enterprises, Sriperumpudur, Chennai
22. TIC Group India Pvt. Ltd., Noida U.P.
23. Attero Recycling Pvt. Ltd., Haridwar,
Uttrakhand
Initiatives of Department of Information
Technology
Department of Information Technology in the Ministry, of
Communication & Information Technology, Government of India, is the nodal
Ministry for electronic industry. In order to address the urgent need of the cost-effective
environmental-friendly technology, DIT is involved in promoting R&D to
develop technological solutions for e-waste management in an environmental
friendly manner. The focus is on developing recycling technology for all types
of e-waste leading to minimum landfill and zero emission to air, land and
water. The recovery of valuable materials and reuse of plastics is aimed at
making recycling an economically profitable business. A number of R&D
projects have been initiated at national institutions in India. Some such
projects are:
a. The project,
entitled, “Development of processing
technology for recycling and reuse of electronic waste” has successfully
been implemented at National Metallurgical Laboratory, Jamshedpur, India - an
R&D laboratory under the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
(CSIR) in March, 2011. In this project, indigenous technology has been
developed to recover metal contents from e-waste with a recovery rate of 90%.
The process is free from the generation of toxic gases and harmful effluents.
Thus it would reduce the environmental hazards that are attributed to e-waste
recycling units in unorganized sector. The developed process has successfully
recycled waste upto a pilot scale of around 1 Metric Tonne of ewaste. This aim
is to take it to possible commercial application.
b. European
Commission has restricted the import of electronic goods, manufactured
using hazardous substances (RoHS) such as lead, cadmium, mercury, hexavalent
chromium, polybrominatedbiphenyles, polybromonateddiphenyl ethers exceeding
certain level. Indian electronic manufacturers are affected due to this
restriction. Department of Information
Technology has, therefore, recently created a testing and certification
facility at CMET, Hyderabad, India for the hazardous raw materials used for
manufacturing electronic components under the project “Establishment of Testing
facilities for the Hazardous Substances as per EU RoHS”. This certification would help Indian
companies, to export their products to European Union.
c. Another project on “Environmentally
sound methods for recovery of metals from PCBs” is being carried at Centre
for Materials for Electronics Technology (C-MET), Hyderabad, with active
participation of authorized recycler, M/s. E-parisaraPvt. Ltd., Bangalore. The
goal of the project is to develop environmentally sound methods for
depopulation, segregation and treatment of components and a recovery method for
metals from de-populated PCBs.
d. Another project on “Novel recovery and conversion of Plastics from WEEE to value added products”
is being carried at Central Institute of Plastics Engineering & Technology
(CIPET), Bhubaneswar. E-waste comprises of seven categories of plastics such as
ABS, HIPS, PC, PP, PVC, Nylons, Epoxy, Phenolic, Polyesters etc. The project
aims to develop value added products from these waste plastics with a goal to
minimize the accumulation of plastics waste in the society. An end-user M/s
Hairta NTI Chennai is actively participated in the project.
e. DIT had
earlier implemented a program on environment management system for Information
Technology industry with financial support from UNDP and Ministry of
Communications and Information Technology (January, 1999- March, 2003). Under
this program a comprehensive document entitled ‘Environment Management system for
Information Technology industry in India’ was prepared and widely circulated
among industries in India. It gave
details of various technologies to be used for improving the hazardous waste
management and reduction in use of hazardous substances in the production of
electronic goods. DIT had taken following steps to help regulate pollution in
electronic industries. Under this several initiatives to create awareness were
taken including:
• The first ever workshop for creating awareness in the
field of electronics environment on ‘Environmental
Management in Electronics Industry’ was conducted by DIT, (then MIT) in
collaboration with UNDP and UNIDO on 9-10 February, 2001 at New Delhi.
• A technical seminar on ‘Environmental Management in Printed Circuit Board Industry’ was organized by DIT,
UNDP and UNIDO in association with Indian Printed Circuit Association (IPCA) in
Bangalore.
• Several presentations were made at national and
international conferences conducted by Electronic Components Industries Association
(ELCINA), Electronics Today, IPCA etc. f. A project on “Development of Lead
Free X-ray absorbing coating materials for CRT TV” has been successfully
implemented, in March 2011, at Centre for Materials for Electronics Technology
(C-MET), Pune, India - an R&D laboratory under the Department of
Information Technology, where the hazardous lead contain in CRT glass shell
will be replaced with environment friendly phospho-silicate glass composite/
phosphate composite as an X-ray absorbing coating. DIT had taken step to sensitize the research
communities, industry association, recycling industry, NGOs to address the
technological solution of the recycling of electronic waste. One such event,
“National Seminar on Electronics waste”, was jointly organized by National
Metallurgical Laboratory, Jamshedpur and Department of Information Technology
on 21-22, January 2010 at NML, Jamshedpur to sensitize the stakeholders about
the problem and to evolve a strategy of technological solution of the e-waste
recycling by means of environmental friendly, cost effective, zero filled approach.
Conclusion
Most of the e-waste is recycled in India in unorganized
units, which engage significant number of manpower. Recovery of metals from
PCBs by primitive means is a most hazardous act. Proper education, awareness
and most importantly alternative cost effective technology need to be provided
so that better means can be provided to those who earn the livelihood from
this. A holistic approach is needed to address the challenges faced by India in
e-waste management. A suitable mechanism needs to be evolved to include small
units in unorganized sector and large units in organized sector into a single
value chain. One approach could be for units in unorganized sector to concentrate
on collection, dismantling, segregation, whereas, the metal extraction,
recycling and disposal could be done by the organized sector.
REFERENCES
1. Electronic Waste and India by Dr. S. Chatterjee
2. Electrical and electronic waste management in
China: progress and the barriers to overcome by Xianbing Liu, Masaru Tanaka and
Yasuhiro Matsui.
3. A Comparitive Study of E-Waste Recycling Systems
in Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan from the EPR perspective: Implications for developing
countries by Sung Woo Chung and Rie Murakami Suzuki.
4. Wikipedia
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